Language Log

• "Word Learning as Category Formation." Caplan, Spencer. PLOS ONE 20, no. 7 (July 3, 2025): e0327615. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0327615.

A fundamental question in word learning is how, given only evidence about what objects a word has previously referred to, children are able to generalize to the correct class. How does a learner end up knowing that “poodle” only picks out a specific subset of dogs rather than the broader class and vice versa? Numerous phenomena have been identified in guiding learner behavior such as the “suspicious coincidence effect” (SCE)—that an increase in the sample size of training objects facilitates more narrow (subordinate) word meanings. While SCE seems to support a class of models based in statistical inference, such rational behavior is, in fact, consistent with a range of algorithmic processes. Notably, the broadness of semantic generalizations is further affected by the temporal manner in which objects are presented—either simultaneously or sequentially. First, I evaluate the experimental evidence on the factors influencing generalization in word learning. A reanalysis of existing data demonstrates that both the number of training objects and their presentation-timing independently affect learning. This independent effect has been obscured by prior literature’s focus on possible interactions between the two. Second, I present a computational model for learning that accounts for both sets of phenomena in a unified way. The Naïve Generalization Model (NGM) offers an explanation of word learning phenomena grounded in category formation. Under the NGM, learning is local and incremental, without the need to perform a global optimization over pre-specified hypotheses. This computational model is tested against human behavior on seven different experimental conditions for word learning, varying over presentation-timing, number, and hierarchical relation between training items. Looking both at qualitative parameter-independent behavior and quantitative parameter-tuned output, these results support the NGM and suggest that rational learning behavior may arise from local, mechanistic processes rather than global statistical inference.

• "Investigating Intentionality in Elephant Gestural Communication." Eleuteri, Vesta et al. Royal Society Open Science 12, no. 7 (July 9, 2025): 242203. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.242203.

A crucial feature of language is the ability to communicate cognitive goals to a specific audience, i.e. goal-directed intentionality. Core criteria for this ability include (i) audience directedness: signalling in the presence of an attentive audience, (ii) persistence: continuing signalling until goals are met, and (iii) elaboration: using new signals following communicative failure. While intentional use has been demonstrated in individual gestures in some non-primates, primates—in particular apes—show this ability across many gestures. But is goal-directed intentionality across many gestures restricted to primates? We explored whether savannah elephants use many gestures with goal-directed intentionality. We presented semi-captive elephants with desired and non-desired items, recording their communicative attempts when an experimenter met, partially met or failed to meet their goal of getting the desired item. Elephants used 38 gesture types almost exclusively when a visually attentive experimenter was present, demonstrating audience directedness. They persisted in gesturing more when their goal was partially as compared with fully met but showed no difference in persistence when the goal was met or not met. Elephants elaborated their gesturing when their goal was not met. We find goal-directed intentionality across many elephant gestures and reveal that elephants, like apes, assess the communicative effectiveness of their gesturing.

• "Mountain Chickadee Chatter: Scientists Are Decoding the Songbird's Complex Calls." Haley, Sofia Marie. The Conversation, May 27, 2025. http://theconversation.com/mountain-chickadee-chatter-scientists-are-decoding-the-songbirds-complex-calls-247091.

The extensive vocal repertoire of mountain chickadees has yet to be fully documented. There are five basic categories of call types:

• • Contact calls: communicate identity, sort of like a name, and location.
  • “Chick-a-dee” calls: coordinate flock movement and communicate a variety of complex information about the environment, from food availability to predator presence and type.
  • Alarm calls: alert others of the presence of a predator.
  • Begging calls: used by chicks or females to elicit feeding behavior from males.
  • Gargle calls: advertise dominance over other individuals in a flock, primarily used by males.

“Chick-a-dee” calls contain several elements resembling the basic elements of human grammar. Essentially, the various sounds a chickadee utters mean different things, similar to words in human languages. And the way that a chickadee combines these sounds changes the meaning. Word order matters, just like grammar matters in human language. If a chickadee were to phrase its calls in the wrong note order, the call would no longer convey the same meaning, even if composed of the same elements.

The author distinguishes between the two large categories of songs and calls.  A video is included; in it you can hear the author distinguish and mimic different types of bird talk

• "The Emoji Tongue." Longreads, July 1, 2025. http://longreads.com/2025/07/01/emoji-language-keith-houston/. Excerpt from Face with Tears of Joy: A Natural History of Emoji. Houston, Keith. 1st ed. W. W. Norton & Company, Incorporated, 2025. https://wwnorton.com/books/9781324075158.